The Lusiads

Overview

Published

Lisbon, 1572, under a royal privilege of 1571 and with the licence of the Inquisition's censor

Genre

Renaissance literary epic on the Virgilian model, celebrating a nation rather than a single hero

Metre

Ottava rima (eight ten-syllable lines rhyming abababcc), the stanza of Ariosto and Tasso

Length

10 cantos, 1,102 stanzas, 8,816 lines

Frame story

Vasco da Gama's first voyage from Lisbon round the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut in India (1497–99)

Setting

The East African coast (Mozambique, Mombasa, Melinde), the open sea, Calicut on the Malabar coast, Olympus and the palace of Neptune; Portuguese history from its legendary founder Lusus to King Manuel

Narrators

The poet, who frames the work and often interrupts it; Vasco da Gama, who tells Portuguese history and the voyage to the king of Melinde (Cantos 3–5); Paulo da Gama, Fernão Veloso, a prophesying nymph and Tethys in later cantos

Protagonist

Collectively 'the Lusiads', the sons of Lusus, that is, the Portuguese; Vasco da Gama is their representative captain

Conflict

Venus, who loves the Portuguese, against Bacchus, who fears that their arrival in the East will eclipse his own fame there

Key themes

Empire and its cost; fame and true honour; the sea and discovery; history as epic; pagan myth in a Christian poem; love; the poet's neglect and disillusion

Context

Luís Vaz de Camões was born around 1524, probably in Lisbon, into a family of the lesser nobility, and seems to have received a good humanist education, perhaps at Coimbra. What we know of his life comes from a handful of documents, from his own poems and from early biographies that mix fact with legend. As a young man he served as a soldier at Ceuta, the Portuguese stronghold in North Africa, and lost his right eye there. In 1552 he wounded a court official in a street brawl in Lisbon, was imprisoned, and was released in return for service in the East. He sailed for India in 1553 and spent some seventeen years in Asia, at Goa, on campaigns, and, according to a strong tradition, in an official post at Macau.

On the voyage back from the Far East he was shipwrecked at the mouth of the Mekong in Cambodia. The story told from early on, and alluded to by the poet himself in Canto 10, is that he swam ashore holding the manuscript of his epic above the water; later legend added that his Chinese beloved drowned. He was found destitute in Mozambique in the late 1560s and returned to Lisbon in 1570. The Lusiads appeared in 1572 with a royal privilege, licensed by the Dominican censor of the Inquisition, who noted that the pagan gods were poetic ornament and did not touch the truth of the faith. King Sebastião granted Camões a small pension. Camões died in 1580, by tradition on 10 June, the date that is now Portugal's national day (Bell 1923) (Hart 1962) (Saraiva 1959).

The poem is dedicated to the young King Sebastião (reigned 1557–78), whom the poet urges in the opening and closing stanzas to carry the crusade into Morocco. In 1578 Sebastião did exactly that and was killed, with much of the Portuguese nobility, at the battle of Alcácer-Quibir. He left no heir, and in 1580 Philip II of Spain took the Portuguese crown. The epic of national glory was thus read, almost from the beginning, in the shadow of national catastrophe; the hope that Sebastião would one day return to save Portugal became a lasting myth.

The Lusiads takes its title from Lusus, legendary founder of Lusitania, and its hero is the whole Portuguese people. Its frame is Vasco da Gama's voyage of 1497–99, which opened the sea route to India; into this frame Camões fits the history of Portugal, told by Gama to the king of Melinde, and a prophecy of the Portuguese empire in the East. The model is Virgil's Aeneid, with its gods, its narrated past and its prophesied future, but the stanza and much of the manner come from Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, and the poet's frequent personal interventions are his own (Bowra 1945) (Hart 1962).

English readers have had the poem since 1655, when the royalist poet Sir Richard Fanshawe published the first English translation during the Interregnum (Camões 1655) (Camões 1940) (Camões 1963). William Julius Mickle's free version of 1776, with additions of his own, made it widely known in the eighteenth century (Camões 1776). Sir Richard Francis Burton, the explorer, published his translation in 1880, keeping the ottava rima and a deliberately archaic diction, and followed it with a two-volume commentary (Burton 1881). All three are on this site; the quotations in this guide come from Burton. Modern translations include those of Leonard Bacon, William C. Atkinson and Landeg White (Camões 1950) (Camões 1952) (Camões 1997).

Plot overview

The poet announces his subject, the Portuguese who sailed beyond Ceylon and founded an empire in the East, and dedicates the poem to King Sebastião. On Olympus Jupiter declares that the Portuguese are destined to reach India. Venus supports them; Bacchus, who once conquered the East and fears losing his fame there, opposes them. Gama's fleet, already in the Indian Ocean, meets treachery at Mozambique and Mombasa engineered by Bacchus, and is saved by Venus and her nymphs. At Melinde the friendly king receives the Portuguese and asks Gama to tell him about his country.

Gama's narrative (Cantos 3–5) describes Europe and recounts Portuguese history: Lusus and Viriathus, the founding of the kingdom by Afonso Henriques and his victory at Ourique, the tragic love of Prince Pedro and Inês de Castro, the victory of João I and Nuno Álvares Pereira over Castile at Aljubarrota (1385), the conquests in Africa, and King Manuel's dream that sends Gama to India. Gama then tells of the departure from Lisbon, where an old man on the beach of Restelo curses the voyage, and of the journey down Africa, culminating in the apparition of the giant Adamastor at the Cape of Good Hope.

Leaving Melinde with a pilot, the fleet sails for India. Bacchus descends to Neptune's palace and persuades the sea gods to raise a storm; the sailor Fernão Veloso entertains the night watch with the tale of the Twelve of England; the tempest nearly sinks the ships until Venus sends her nymphs to calm the winds. The Portuguese reach Calicut (Canto 7), where the Samorim receives Gama. Bacchus, through a dream and through the Muslim merchants, turns the court against them; Gama is detained, then released, and finally sails for home (Cantos 8–9).

On the way home Venus rewards the sailors with an enchanted Isle of Love, where sea nymphs give themselves to them and Tethys takes Gama as her consort (Canto 9). At a banquet a nymph prophesies the deeds of the Portuguese viceroys and captains in the East, and Tethys leads Gama to a summit to show him the 'machine of the world', the whole universe and the lands that Portugal will reach (Canto 10). The sailors return to Lisbon. The poet closes in weariness and bitterness at his country's indifference, with a final appeal to Sebastião.

Book by book

Characters

Portuguese

Vasco da Gama

Commander of the fleet (c. 1469–1524) and the poem's representative hero. He is less a personality than a model of Portuguese virtue: prudent, pious, eloquent and steadfast. He narrates Cantos 3–5 to the king of Melinde, prays in the storm, endures detention at Calicut, and is rewarded with the love of Tethys and the vision of the universe. The poet also uses him to reproach his descendants, who did not honour poetry.

Paulo da Gama

Vasco's brother and captain of one of the ships. In Cantos 7–8 he explains to the Catual the banners showing Portuguese heroes, so becoming another narrator of national history.

Fernão Veloso

A sailor (Burton's 'Velloso') whose misadventure inland in Canto 5 provides comedy, and who tells the tale of the Twelve of England to the night watch in Canto 6. He represents the boastful good humour of the ordinary sailor.

The Old Man of Restelo

An unnamed old man on the beach at Belém who, as the fleet sails, condemns the lust for fame and empire that drives the voyage (4.94–104). He is the epic's internal critic, and his speech remains unanswered.

Leonardo

A soldier always unlucky in love who, on the Isle of Love, pursues the nymph Ephyre and wins her with his plea; a small comic romance within the episode.

The Poet

Camões's own voice, which interrupts the narrative at the end of several cantos to lament human frailty, attack greed and the neglect of poetry, define true honour, and recall his own exile and shipwreck. His growing disillusion shapes the poem as much as Gama's voyage.

King Sebastião

The young king (1554–78) to whom the poem is dedicated and whom it urges to war in Africa. He is addressed at the beginning and the end; his death at Alcácer-Quibir six years after publication changed how the poem was read.

Gods

Venus

Goddess of love and protector of the Portuguese, in whom she sees the virtues of her Romans. She saves them at Mombasa, pleads for them with Jupiter, calms the storm, and rewards them with the Isle of Love.

Bacchus

The god who once conquered India and fears losing his fame there. He opposes the voyage through disguises, dreams and intrigue, and stirs up the sea gods. His role is modelled on Juno's in the Aeneid, but his motive is rivalry for glory.

Jupiter

Ruler of the gods, who declares the Portuguese destiny in the council of Canto 1 and prophesies their triumphs to Venus in Canto 2.

Mars

God of war, who speaks for Venus and the Portuguese in the council of the gods.

Neptune

God of the sea, persuaded by Bacchus in Canto 6 to unleash the winds against the fleet.

Tethys

Sea goddess who on the Isle of Love becomes Gama's consort, and who in Canto 10 shows him the machine of the world and confesses that the pagan gods are fables.

Adamastor

The Titan who became the Cape of Good Hope, punished for his love of the sea nymph Thetis. He appears to the fleet in Canto 5, prophesies disasters, and tells his own sad story.

Peoples of the voyage

The King of Melinde

The friendly Muslim ruler of Malindi on the East African coast, who welcomes the Portuguese and asks Gama to tell the history of his nation. He is the honourable host, in contrast to the rulers of Mozambique and Mombasa.

The rulers of Mozambique and Mombasa

Muslim lords of the East African coast who, incited by Bacchus, try to destroy the fleet by treachery.

The Samorim

The Zamorin, Hindu ruler of Calicut, who receives Gama courteously but is turned against him by the Muslim merchants and his soothsayers.

The Catual

The Samorim's minister, who escorts Gama, hears Paulo da Gama explain the banners, and then, bribed by Gama's enemies, detains him.

Monsaydé

A Muslim from North Africa living at Calicut who speaks Castilian, serves as interpreter, warns Gama of the plot, and sails with the Portuguese to become a Christian.

Figures of the history

Afonso Henriques

First king of Portugal (d. 1185), who wins independence and defeats the Moors at Ourique after a vision of Christ; the founding hero of Gama's history.

Inês de Castro

Galician lady loved by Prince Pedro and killed in 1355 on the orders of his father Afonso IV (3.118–35; Burton's 'Ignèz'). She is the poem's great tragic victim, whose death the Mondego nymphs mourn in the Fountain of Loves.

Nuno Álvares Pereira

Constable of Portugal and hero of Aljubarrota (1385), who rouses the nobles to support João I against Castile; a model of pious, selfless valour.

João I

Master of Avis, chosen king in the crisis of 1383–85, victor at Aljubarrota and conqueror of Ceuta; founder of the dynasty under which the discoveries began.

King Manuel

King (1495–1521) who, after a prophetic dream of the Ganges and the Indus, sends Gama to India.

Themes

Empire and its cost

The poem celebrates the founding of a Portuguese empire in the East as the fulfilment of a national destiny and a Christian mission. Its prophecies list victories and conquests, and Jupiter promises that the Portuguese will add 'new worlds' to the old. In this the Lusiads takes up the Aeneid's union of epic and empire.

Yet the poem keeps counting the cost. The Old Man of Restelo condemns the voyage before it begins; Adamastor prophesies shipwrecks and deaths; the poet laments the dangers of life at sea and attacks the greed that the spice trade feeds. The rebuke to Albuquerque in Canto 10 shows that even the heroes of empire can be judged. The epic of conquest carries its own counter-voice (Quint 1993).

Fame and true honour

The poem is about fame: the poet's task is to make the deeds of the Portuguese famous, and Bacchus fights to keep his own. But the poem also asks what fame is worth. The Old Man calls it vanity and a word to deceive the crowd; the poet distinguishes true honour, earned by hardship and virtue (6.95–99), from rank, wealth and court favour.

The Isle of Love allegorises fame as the reward of virtue, while the epilogue shows the poet denied the reward his song deserves. Fame thus becomes both the goal of the heroes and the measure of a nation that fails to honour the deserving.

The sea and discovery

The Lusiads is the epic of the sea. It lists marvels the ancients never saw, the Southern Cross, St Elmo's fire, the waterspout, and boasts that experience surpasses ancient learning. The voyage replaces the war of classical epic as the great heroic test.

The sea is also a realm of gods and monsters: Neptune's palace, Adamastor, the nymphs. Its dangers are real and recurrent, from the storm of Canto 6 to the shipwrecks of later fleets and of the poet himself. At the end the sea becomes the bride of the heroes, as Tethys takes Gama as her consort.

History and prophecy

The poem fits some four centuries of Portuguese history into a single voyage through narration, painted banners and prophecy. Past (Cantos 3–4 and 8) and future (Cantos 2 and 10) frame the present of the voyage and make Gama's journey the hinge of national history.

This structure presents history as destiny, guaranteed by Jupiter and by the Christian God. But the poet's laments and Adamastor's prophecies show that history can also be a story of loss, and readers of 1572, still more those after 1578, knew how the empire's fortunes were already turning.

Love

Love runs through the poem in many forms: Venus's protective love for the Portuguese, the tragic love of Pedro and Inês, the hopeless love of Adamastor for Thetis, the ruinous passion of Fernando, and the reward of love on the island. Love can destroy, as in Inês's death, or ennoble.

The prominence of love links Camões's epic to his lyric poetry and to the romance tradition. On the Isle of Love, love becomes the reward of heroism, while Cupid's campaign against the world's base loves suggests that the poem also wants to reform desire.

The poet and his nation

Camões repeatedly interrupts his narrative to speak in his own voice. He presents himself as soldier and poet, an exile who has suffered as much as any sailor, and he bitterly reproaches his countrymen for despising poetry and rewarding flatterers.

The poem thus records not only the nation's greatness but its poet's estrangement from it. The famous ending, with its untuned lyre and deaf audience, gives the Lusiads its distinctive note of disenchantment within celebration.

Motifs

The poet's interventions

At the ends of Cantos 1, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10, and elsewhere, the poet steps forward to moralise or lament. These passages on human frailty, the neglect of poetry, true honour, greed and his own misfortunes form a second, personal poem alongside the narrative of the voyage.

Rivalry with the ancients

The poem constantly compares the Portuguese with Odysseus, Aeneas, Alexander and the Romans and claims that they surpass them, because their deeds are true and their sea is greater. The claim is made in the proposition, repeated by Jupiter, and echoed by Adamastor's boast that Ptolemy, Strabo and Pliny never knew his Cape.

Prophecy

Jupiter, Manuel's dream, Adamastor, the nymph's song and Tethys's vision all foretell the future. Prophecy lets the poem include events after Gama and balance glory against disaster.

Treachery and hospitality

The voyage is a sequence of welcomes, true and false: Mozambique and Mombasa offer friendship to conceal ambush, Melinde gives honest hospitality, Calicut moves from courtesy to detention. The pattern dramatises the uncertainty of contact between peoples.

Narrated history

The poem tells history through several voices and media: Gama's speech, the painted banners explained by Paulo, Veloso's tale, the nymph's song. These framed narratives make history something performed for an audience, often a foreign one.

Symbols

The fleet

The ships stand for the nation itself: few, fragile and daring, carrying Portugal across the world. The poet's own 'fragile barque' of song (7.78) mirrors them.

Adamastor

The giant of the Cape symbolises the dangers of the unknown sea, the boundary the Portuguese break, and the suffering of those who pay for discovery; for modern readers he can also stand for Africa.

The Fountain of Loves

The fountain the Mondego nymphs name after Inês's death symbolises love's sorrow and its survival in memory and landscape.

The Isle of Love

The island stands, by the poet's own allegory, for the honours that reward heroic virtue; it is also an image of paradise regained and of the sea possessed.

The machine of the world

The globe Tethys shows Gama symbolises the totality of knowledge the voyage opens, and God's order behind the visible universe, which no human mind can fully grasp.

Pen and sword

The poet's image of himself writing with one hand and fighting with the other (7.79) symbolises the Renaissance ideal of arms and letters united, and his claim to be both hero and singer.

Critical debates

Epic of empire and its critics

The Lusiads has been read as the epic of Portuguese imperialism, a poem that glorifies conquest and the crusade against Islam, and as such it was enlisted by later nationalist regimes. David Quint places it in a tradition of epics of the victors, descended from the Aeneid, which tell history as a purposeful triumph (Quint 1993).

Other readers stress the poem's internal critics: the Old Man of Restelo, Adamastor, the laments against greed, the rebuke to Albuquerque. Quint himself shows how such figures give voice to the losers and to the voyagers' fears, and how the poem's romance elements pull against its imperial plot. Whether these voices undermine the celebration or are contained by it remains a central question (Quint 1993) (Blackmore 2009).

Pagan machinery in a Christian epic

The divine machinery of Venus, Bacchus, Jupiter and Neptune drives the plot of a poem about Christian heroes on a crusading mission. The censor who licensed the book already felt the need to say that the pagan gods were mere poetic ornament. Tethys's confession in Canto 10 that the gods are fables, and figures for the spirits that serve providence, may have been designed to meet such objections.

Critics differ on whether the machinery is decorative, allegorical (Venus as love or providence, Bacchus as the forces opposing Christianity), or a deliberate source of tension. Bowra found it essential to the poem's beauty and meaning while recognising its awkwardness (Bowra 1945) (Hart 1962) (Sena 1970).

Adamastor and colonial violence

Adamastor has become a key figure in postcolonial readings. As the spirit of the Cape whose seas the Portuguese 'violate', he can be read as Africa resisting European intrusion, or as Europe's projection of its own fears onto the continent. Josiah Blackmore studies how Portuguese writing of the period imagines Africa through such figures, and how shipwreck narratives record the disasters that Adamastor foretells (Blackmore 2009) (Blackmore 2002).

In South Africa Adamastor became a literary myth. Roy Campbell named a collection after him, and later poets and novelists used him to reflect on the history of colonisation. The anthology Shades of Adamastor collects poems in this tradition, and George Monteiro traces Camões's presence in Southern African literature (Campbell 1930) (Van Wyk Smith 1988) (Gray 1979) (Monteiro 1996).

The Isle of Love: allegory or erotic fantasy?

The poet himself explains the Isle of Love as an allegory of the honours that reward heroism (9.89–92), and many critics accept the reading, seeing the episode as an earthly apotheosis modelled on the classical deification of heroes (Bowra 1945).

Others find the allegory a thin cover for an erotic fantasy that the poem plainly relishes. Helder Macedo reads the island as the goal of an initiatory journey in which love and knowledge unite (Macedo 1980); feminist and postcolonial critics see in it a fantasy of male and imperial possession of the sea and its women. The coexistence of these readings reflects the episode's own mixture of romance, myth and moral.

Camões, Virgil and Ariosto

Camões openly rivals Virgil: the council of the gods, Venus's plea, the narrated history and the prophetic vision all have models in the Aeneid. Bowra presents the Lusiads as one of the great Renaissance attempts to write a modern epic on Virgil's pattern, and as the most successful in joining history to heroic poetry (Bowra 1945).

But the ottava rima, the romance episodes and the ironic and erotic touches come from Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, which Camões also claims to surpass because his heroes are real. Critics debate how far the poem's mixture of Virgilian seriousness and Ariostan play forms a coherent design; Jorge de Sena argued for a carefully calculated structure beneath the apparent variety (Sena 1970) (Quint 1993).

Nationalism and reception

After 1580, under Spanish rule, the Lusiads became a symbol of Portuguese identity, and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries poem and poet were central to nationalist movements. Under the Estado Novo the anniversary of Camões's death, 10 June, was celebrated as the 'Day of the Race'; since the revolution of 1974 it has been the Day of Portugal, of Camões and of the Portuguese Communities.

English reception has its own history, from Fanshawe and Mickle to Burton, who identified with the wandering soldier-poet. Richard Helgerson compares the national project of the Lusiads with Elizabethan writing about English voyages, and Monteiro traces Camões's influence in England, America and Southern Africa (Helgerson 1992) (Monteiro 1996) (Camões 1655) (Camões 1776) (Burton 1881).

The poet's voice and his disillusion

The personal interventions have been read as signs of the poet's disenchantment with a Portugal sunk in greed and indifference, and as the bitterness of a soldier-poet denied reward. The ending, with its 'No more, my Muse', can even be read as a farewell to epic itself.

Biographical critics have used these passages to reconstruct Camões's life, often too literally; others see them as a deliberate part of the poem's structure, a counter-epic of the individual set against the nation (Saraiva 1959) (Macedo 1980) (Hart 1962) (Bell 1923).

Key passages

Questions for study

1. Who is the hero of the Lusiads: Vasco da Gama, the Portuguese people, or the poet?

   Consider the title, the proposition, Gama's role as narrator, and the weight of the poet's interventions, especially at the ends of Cantos 7 and 10.

2. How does Camões rival Homer and Virgil? Where does he imitate them and where does he claim to surpass them?

   Look at the proposition, the council of the gods, Venus's plea to Jupiter and the vision of Canto 10. Think about the claim that his story is true.

3. Why does the poem give the Old Man of Restelo the last word before the fleet sails?

   Weigh his arguments against the poem's celebration of the voyage, and note that no character answers him.

4. What does Adamastor represent?

   Consider his prophecies of disaster, his love story, his identity with the Cape, and modern readings of him as a figure for Africa.

5. How does the Inês de Castro episode fit into a national epic?

   Think about its lyric tone, its criticism of reason of state, and its place in Gama's history between battles.

6. How do the pagan gods function in a Christian poem?

   Compare Gama's prayer in the storm with Venus's intervention, and read Tethys's confession in 10.82.

7. Is the Isle of Love an allegory, a fantasy, or both?

   Read the poet's explanation in 9.89–92 against the descriptions of the nymphs and the chase. What does the island reward, and how?

8. How does the poem combine history, narrated history and prophecy?

   List the different narrators (Gama, Paulo, Veloso, the nymph, Tethys) and the periods each covers.

9. What is the poet's view of fame and honour?

   Compare the Old Man's speech, the reflection on honour at the end of Canto 6, and the allegory of the island.

10. How does knowledge of Sebastião's defeat at Alcácer-Quibir change the way we read the poem?

    Reread the dedication and the epilogue, and think about the poem's later reception in Portugal.

Further reading

• Bell, Aubrey F. G. Luis de Camões. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923.
• Blackmore, Josiah. Manifest Perdition: Shipwreck Narrative and the Disruption of Empire. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002.
• Blackmore, Josiah. Moorings: Portuguese Expansion and the Writing of Africa. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2009.
• Bowra, C. M. From Virgil to Milton. London: Macmillan, 1945.
• Burton, Richard F. Camoens: His Life and His Lusiads. A Commentary. 2 vols. London: Bernard Quaritch, 1881.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem. Translated by Richard Fanshawe. London: Humphrey Moseley, 1655.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiad; or, The Discovery of India. An Epic Poem. Translated by William Julius Mickle. Oxford: Jackson and Lister, 1776.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiad. Translated by Richard Fanshawe. Edited by Jeremiah D. M. Ford. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1940.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiads of Luiz de Camões. Translated by Leonard Bacon. New York: Hispanic Society of America, 1950.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiads. Translated by William C. Atkinson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1952.
• Camões, Luís de. The Lusiads in Sir Richard Fanshawe's Translation. Edited by Geoffrey Bullough. London: Centaur Press, 1963.
• Camões, Luís Vaz de. The Lusíads. Translated by Landeg White. Oxford World's Classics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
• Campbell, Roy. Adamastor. London: Faber and Faber, 1930.
• Gray, Stephen. Southern African Literature: An Introduction. Cape Town: David Philip, 1979.
• Hart, Henry H. Luis de Camoëns and the Epic of the Lusiads. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1962.
• Helgerson, Richard. Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992.
• Macedo, Helder. Camões e a viagem iniciática. Lisbon: Moraes Editores, 1980.
• Monteiro, George. The Presence of Camões: Influences on the Literature of England, America, and Southern Africa. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996.
• Quint, David. Epic and Empire: Politics and Generic Form from Virgil to Milton. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
• Saraiva, António José. Luís de Camões. Lisbon: Publicações Europa-América, 1959.
• Sena, Jorge de. A estrutura de "Os Lusíadas" e outros estudos camonianos e de poesia peninsular do século XVI. Lisbon: Portugália, 1970.
• Van Wyk Smith, Malvern, ed. Shades of Adamastor: Africa and the Portuguese Connection. An Anthology of Poetry. Grahamstown: Institute for the Study of English in Africa, Rhodes University, and National English Literary Museum, 1988.