The Shepheardes Calender

Overview

Published

London, 1579: entered in the Stationers' Register on 5 December 1579 by the printer Hugh Singleton; four further quartos followed by 1597

Author

Edmund Spenser (c. 1552–1599), then in his late twenties, a Cambridge graduate (Pembroke Hall) recently secretary to John Young, Bishop of Rochester; his name appears nowhere in the book

Signature

The dedicatory poem 'To His Booke' is signed 'Immeritô', 'the unworthy one'; the volume is dedicated to Philip Sidney

Apparatus

An editor who signs himself 'E. K.' supplies an Epistle to Gabriel Harvey, a General Argument, an Argument before each eclogue and learned glosses after it

Form

Twelve pastoral eclogues, one for each month from January to December, each headed by a woodcut and closed by 'emblems' (mottoes) for the speakers

Kinds

E. K. sorts the eclogues as plaintive (January, June, November, December), recreative (March, April, August) and moral (February, May, July, September, October)

Metre

A deliberate display of variety: more than a dozen verse forms, from rough four-stress couplets to the April lay, a sestina in August and the ten-line elegy of November

Language

Studiously archaic and rustic, with words from Chaucer and northern dialect; Sidney and Jonson both objected to it

Models

Theocritus, Virgil's Eclogues, Mantuan, Marot, and Chaucer, whom the poem calls 'Tityrus'; the title recalls the popular almanac The Kalender of Shepherdes

This edition

The quote edition is a modernised text giving E. K.'s Arguments, the eclogues, the emblems and the Epilogue, but not the Epistle, the General Argument or the glosses; line numbers here count its verse lines

Context

The Shepheardes Calender appeared at the end of 1579 as a handsome quarto without its author's name. Its dedicatory verses are signed 'Immeritô', and its editor, 'E. K.', speaks only of 'the new poet'. Readers in the know, however, soon understood that the poet was Edmund Spenser, a former sizar of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, who had spent 1578 as secretary to John Young, Bishop of Rochester, and in 1579 was in the household of the Earl of Leicester, where he came to know Philip Sidney. The book announced, with unusual ceremony, the arrival of a major English poet (Hadfield 2012) (Oram 1989).

The ceremony lay above all in the presentation. A first book of English verse by an unknown writer was given the apparatus normally reserved for a classical author: an introductory Epistle addressed to Gabriel Harvey, Spenser's friend and former tutor at Cambridge; a General Argument explaining the design; a prose Argument before each eclogue; a commentary after each one, glossing hard words and identifying sources; a woodcut at the head of each month; and Latin, Italian, French or Greek mottoes ('emblems') at the close. The effect was to present a contemporary English poem as though it were already a classic, comparable to Virgil's Eclogues with their Renaissance commentaries (Luborsky 1980) (McCabe 1999).

Pastoral, the poetry of shepherds, was the genre traditionally chosen by a young poet. Virgil had begun with the Eclogues before the Georgics and the Aeneid, and Renaissance readers saw in that sequence a model career, rising from low to high style. Spenser's book draws on the whole pastoral tradition, from Theocritus and Virgil to the Latin eclogues of Mantuan and the French eclogues of Clément Marot, and adds an English ancestor: Chaucer, whom it calls Tityrus, the name Virgil had used for himself. Its title also echoes The Kalender of Shepherdes, a popular almanac of moral and astronomical lore, so that the high literary tradition is joined to a homely English one (Cullen 1970) (Cheney 1993).

Pastoral had also long been a vehicle for comment on the church and the state, since the Christian pastor is literally a shepherd. Spenser used it for both. Several eclogues attack worldly and ambitious clergy in the language of radical Protestantism, praise a figure called Algrind who stands for Edmund Grindal, the Archbishop of Canterbury suspended by the Queen in 1577, and allude to the controversy over Elizabeth's proposed marriage to the French Catholic Francis, Duke of Alençon (later Anjou). The book's printer, Hugh Singleton, had a few months earlier printed John Stubbs's pamphlet against that marriage, The Discoverie of a Gaping Gulf, for which Stubbs and its distributor William Page lost their right hands in November 1579 (McLane 1961) (King 1990).

The book was a success. Further quartos appeared in 1581, 1586, 1591 and 1597, and Sidney praised it in his Defence of Poesy, while regretting its 'old rustic language'. Its central figure, Colin Clout, became Spenser's lasting persona: he returns in Colin Clouts Come Home Againe (1595) and on Mount Acidale in Book VI of The Faerie Queene. Later pastoral in English, from Drayton to Milton's Lycidas, was written in its shadow (Sidney 2002) (Alpers 1996).

Plot overview

The Calender has no single story, but it is held together by the year and by the figure of Colin Clout, a young shepherd-poet in love with Rosalind, who does not return his love. In January Colin, in a frozen landscape, complains of his love and breaks his pipe. He appears again in June, lamenting to his friend Hobbinol that Rosalind has preferred another shepherd, Menalcas; in November, where he sings an elegy for Dido, a shepherdess of great family; and in December, where, an old man in the last month of his year, he reviews his life season by season and bids farewell to his flock, his friend and his love. Between these appearances other shepherds sing his songs (April, August) or speak of him with regret (September, October).

The other eclogues are debates and singing matches among shepherds. In February the old Thenot and the young Cuddie quarrel about age and youth, and Thenot tells the fable of the Oak and the Brier. In March two boys, Willy and Thomalin, talk of Cupid. In April Hobbinol sings Colin's lay in praise of Elisa, queen of shepherds. In August Willie and Perigot hold a singing contest judged by Cuddie, who then recites Colin's sestina.

Three eclogues treat the church. In May the strict Piers and the easy-going Palinode argue about the life fit for a shepherd, and Piers tells the fable of the Fox and the Kid. In July the humble Thomalin and the proud goatherd Morrell argue the merits of hills and lowlands, and Thomalin tells of the ill fate of the good shepherd Algrind. In September Diggon Davie returns from a far country with his flock lost, describes the corruption of its shepherds, and tells of the wolf in sheep's clothing that Roffy caught.

October stands apart: Piers urges the poet Cuddie to write, and Cuddie complains that poetry is neglected and unrewarded now that Maecenas and Augustus are dead. The book ends with an Epilogue in which the poet sends his 'little Calender' into the world, claiming that it will last till the world's end but should follow humbly behind Chaucer and the author of the ploughman poems.

Part by part

Characters

Shepherds

Colin Clout

The young shepherd-poet at the centre of the book and Spenser's own persona; E. K. says the poet 'shadoweth himself' under this name, which he took from Skelton's satire Colin Clout. He speaks in January, June, November and December; his songs are performed by others in April and August; and he is remembered in September and October. In love with Rosalind, who rejects him, he breaks his pipe in January and hangs it up in December.

Rosalind

The 'country lass' Colin loves, called in April 'the widow's daughter of the glen'. She never appears. She scorns Colin's songs and prefers Menalcas. E. K. claims that her name, rightly ordered, reveals the real woman's name, but no identification has been accepted.

Hobbinol

Colin's devoted friend, whose love Colin does not return. He sings Colin's lay of Elisa in April, comforts Colin in June and welcomes Diggon Davie to his cottage in September. He is a voice of contentment and moderation.

Thenot

An old shepherd who tells the fable of the Oak and the Brier to the scornful Cuddie in February, hears the lay of Elisa in April, and in November asks Colin for the elegy for Dido.

Cuddie

A young herdsman who mocks old Thenot in February, judges the singing match and recites Colin's sestina in August, and in October appears as a discouraged poet complaining that poetry is unrewarded. Whether the same figure is meant in all three eclogues is uncertain.

Piers

A stern Protestant shepherd who in May rebukes Palinode and tells the fable of the Fox and the Kid, and in October urges Cuddie to write epic. The name recalls Piers Plowman.

Palinode

Piers's opponent in May, a worldly, pleasure-loving shepherd identified by E. K.'s Argument with the Catholic pastor. In July he is said to have returned from a pilgrimage to Rome. His name means a retraction or recantation.

Thomalin

In March a shepherd boy wounded by Cupid; in July a humble lowland shepherd who refuses Morrell's invitation to climb the hill and tells the story of Algrind.

Morrell

The proud goatherd of July who sits on a hill and defends high places as holy; E. K.'s Argument calls him a type of the ambitious pastor.

Willy, Willie and Perigot

Willy talks of Cupid with Thomalin in March. In August Willie and Perigot hold a singing match, Perigot singing of the girl whose glance wounded him and Willie answering with refrains.

Diggon Davie

The ruined shepherd of September who returns from a far country and denounces the corruption of its shepherds. He tells the story of Roffy and the wolf.

Figures behind the names

Elisa

The 'queen of shepheards all' of Colin's April lay, daughter of Pan and Syrinx, crowned and attended by Muses and Graces: Queen Elizabeth I, as E. K.'s Argument says. She is mentioned again in October.

Algrind

A good shepherd mentioned in May and July, wounded by a shellfish dropped by an eagle. The name is an anagram of Grindal: Edmund Grindal, Archbishop of Canterbury, suspended by the Queen in 1577.

Roffy

The wise shepherd of September who catches the wolf in sheep's clothing; Colin is his boy. The name comes from Roffensis, 'of Rochester', and refers to John Young, Bishop of Rochester, Spenser's employer in 1578.

Tityrus

In February, June and December the dead master-poet who taught Colin, glossed by E. K. as Chaucer; in October the 'Romish Tityrus', Virgil, who used that name for himself in his first eclogue.

Gabriel Harvey

Spenser's friend and former tutor at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, to whom E. K.'s Epistle is addressed and whom E. K.'s glosses connect with Hobbinol. Their published correspondence of 1580 continues the friendship.

The White Bear

In October 'the Worthy whom she loveth best' is the one who 'first the White Bear to the stake did bring': Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, whose badge was the bear and ragged staff. Lobbin, Dido's mourner in November, may also be Leicester.

Dido

The dead 'great shepheard his daughter' mourned in November. E. K. says the author would not reveal who she was; proposals include a lady of Leicester's family and, in allegorical readings, Elizabeth.

Menalcas, Lobbin and Wrenock

Menalcas is the rival who wins Rosalind (June); Lobbin is Dido's grieving lover (November); Wrenock is the old shepherd who taught Colin his art (December), perhaps Richard Mulcaster, Spenser's headmaster at Merchant Taylors' School.

Others

E. K.

The unidentified editor and commentator who writes the Epistle, the General Argument, the Arguments and the glosses. He presents himself as a friend of the poet and of Harvey; he has been identified with Edward Kirke, a Cambridge contemporary, with Spenser himself, and with Harvey.

Immeritô

The signature, 'the unworthy one', under the dedicatory poem 'To His Booke'. Spenser used it again in his letters to Harvey.

Philip Sidney

The dedicatee, 'the president of noblesse and of chevalree' in the poem 'To His Booke'. In his Defence of Poesy he praised the Calender's poetry but objected to its archaic language.

Hugh Singleton

The printer of the first quarto, a Protestant who had printed Stubbs's Gaping Gulf against the Alençon match earlier in 1579.

Themes

The poet's vocation

The Calender is a book about becoming a poet. Its central figure breaks his pipe in January and hangs it up in December; in between, others perform his songs and lament his silence. October debates directly whether poetry is worth writing when it brings no reward, and what should inspire it: profit, patrons, love, wine or heaven. The book's elaborate presentation, with editor and commentary, insists that a new English poet has arrived who deserves to be read like the classics (Helgerson 1978) (Cheney 1993).

The answer the book gives is double. Colin, the lover, ends in failure and old age; the Calender, the work, claims to last till the end of the world. The poet's personal defeat is turned into the poem's survival.

Time and the year

The structure is the calendar itself. Each eclogue is matched to its month in setting, mood and imagery, and E. K. explains the correspondences in his Arguments: winter for despair and old age, spring for awakening love, summer heat for passion and controversy, autumn for loss. In December the year becomes a human life, and the book becomes a meditation on mortality (Cullen 1970).

The almanac model gives this scheme a homely and moral cast, and the zodiac signs in the woodcuts set the shepherds' lives inside a cosmic order. The Epilogue claims that, if the poet has 'marked well the stars' revolution', his calendar will serve 'for every year'.

Love and its cost

Love in the Calender is mostly a wound. Colin's love for Rosalind silences his poetry, Thomalin is shot by Cupid, Perigot is struck by a glance, and Hobbinol's love for Colin is not returned. The emblems repeatedly weigh love's honey against its gall. Yet October allows that love may lift the mind 'above the starry sky', a Platonic idea that Spenser developed in his later poetry (Montrose 1979).

Church and conscience

May, July and September use the ancient equation of pastor and shepherd to criticise the clergy: their wealth, worldliness and neglect of their flocks, and the dangers of disguised Catholic 'wolves' and 'foxes'. The figure of Algrind expresses sympathy for Archbishop Grindal and the cause of a preaching ministry. The satire is pointed but carefully veiled, using fables and pastoral names that allowed deniability (King 1990) (McLane 1961).

Praise and counsel

The pastoral mode allowed a poet to address the powerful from below. April's praise of Elisa makes the Queen a goddess of the shepherds' world, but in 1579 that praise could also carry advice: to remain a virgin queen and a Protestant one. Louis Montrose has argued that Elizabethan pastoral was a way for gentlemen to speak of power and ambition under the guise of humble shepherds (Montrose 1983) (Montrose 1980).

Motifs

Debate and contest

Most eclogues are dialogues between opposed speakers: age and youth, Protestant and Catholic, high and low, the discouraged and the hopeful poet. Singing matches and quarrels let the book present several views without wholly endorsing any.

Fables

Old shepherds tell beast fables and parables: the Oak and the Brier (February), the Fox and the Kid (May), the eagle and Algrind (July), the wolf in sheep's clothing (September). The fables carry the political and religious meanings that could not safely be stated.

Songs within songs

Colin's poems are often performed by others: Hobbinol sings the lay of Elisa, Cuddie recites the sestina. This creates a reputation for Colin within the book and shows poetry passing from mouth to mouth in a community.

Tityrus and the masters

Repeated tributes to Tityrus, as Chaucer and as Virgil, and the Epilogue's bow to Langland's ploughman tradition place the new poet in a line of English and classical predecessors.

Emblems

Each eclogue closes with mottoes, called emblems or posies, for its speakers, in Latin, Italian, French or Greek. They summarise each speaker's position and often answer each other, as Colin's anchor of hope in January is answered by 'hope is already spent' in June.

Symbols

The pipe

Colin's oaten pipe stands for his poetry. He breaks it in January, his friends mourn its silence in April, and he hangs it on a tree in December. The 'oaten reed' is also the conventional emblem of pastoral, which Virgil left for epic.

The flock

A shepherd's sheep reflect his condition: Colin's flock pines with him in January, and in the church eclogues the flock is the congregation, starved or devoured by careless and greedy pastors.

Hill and dale

In July the hill stands for ambition and worldly greatness, the dale for humility and safety. The opposition reappears when Piers urges Cuddie to climb and Cuddie stays in 'humble shade'.

Wolves and foxes

Predators in disguise, drawn from the Gospels, signify false teachers, especially Catholic priests working secretly in England.

The Oak and the Brier

The ancient, hallowed tree and the flowering upstart of February: tradition against novelty, the old nobility against the courtier, age against youth.

Critical debates

Who was E. K.?

The editor who signs 'E. K.' has never been certainly identified. The traditional candidate is Edward Kirke (1553–1613), who was at Pembroke Hall with Spenser and Harvey. But E. K. knows a great deal about the poet's intentions and unpublished works, and sometimes professes ignorance in a way that looks coy, so many scholars have suspected that Spenser wrote some or all of the apparatus himself, perhaps with Harvey's help (Oram 1989) (McCabe 1999).

Louis Waldman studied the humanist practice of disguised self-naming that might lie behind the initials, and Louise Schleiner argued that 'E. K.' could stand for 'Edmund Kent', Spenser presenting himself as the man of Kent. Others see E. K. as a collaborative mask. The question matters because it determines whether the glosses are an outsider's reading or part of the poem's own design (Waldman 1988) (Schleiner 1990).

The new poet and the Virgilian career

E. K. introduces 'the new poet', and the book seems designed to launch a career. Richard Helgerson showed how Spenser presented himself as a poet by vocation rather than a gentleman amateur, and Patrick Cheney read the Calender as the first step in a career modelled on Virgil's progress from pastoral to epic, with October's image of the poet's 'famous flight' as its emblem. The Faerie Queene, whose opening imitates the verses once prefixed to the Aeneid, completes the pattern (Helgerson 1978) (Cheney 1993).

Others stress that the Calender is also a book about failure: Colin never rises from pastoral, and October ends with Cuddie in the shade. Louis Montrose read the career aspirations through the courtly system of patronage, in which poetry was a means of advancement as much as an end (Montrose 1979).

Religious politics and Grindal

The ecclesiastical eclogues have been read as precise allegories. Paul McLane identified Algrind with Grindal, Roffy with John Young, Morrell with John Aylmer and Diggon Davie with Richard Davies, and saw the book as the work of a progressive Protestant critical of the Queen's church policy (McLane 1961).

John N. King placed the Calender within a native tradition of Protestant satire going back to the Piers Plowman poems, and argued that Spenser's position was reformist rather than Puritan in the narrow sense. Critics differ on how radical the book is: it attacks worldly prelates but also gives voice to moderation in Hobbinol and to the old religion's dignity in the Oak (King 1990) (Hadfield 2012).

The Alençon match and April

In 1579 Elizabeth seemed close to marrying Francis, Duke of Alençon, a match opposed by Leicester and by many Protestants. Singleton had printed Stubbs's Gaping Gulf against it. McLane argued that the Calender is shot through with allusions to the marriage, and that Dido in November figures Elizabeth as dead to her people if she marries (McLane 1961).

Montrose read April's virgin queen, praised as self-sufficient and heavenly, as part of the cult of Elizabeth that the anti-match party encouraged. Others think the topical allusions less systematic. Richard McCabe and Andrew Hadfield set the book's political risk in the context of Stubbs's punishment (Montrose 1980) (McCabe 2002) (Hadfield 2012).

Archaism: 'Spenser writ no language'

E. K.'s Epistle defends the poet's old and rustic words as a revival of English, sounding of Chaucer. Sidney, in the Defence of Poesy, objected that Theocritus, Virgil and Sannazaro had not affected an old rustic language, and Ben Jonson later said that Spenser, in affecting the ancients, 'writ no language' (Sidney 2002) (Jonson 2012).

Modern critics see the archaism as a deliberate programme: a claim to native English roots, a link to Chaucer, a sign of the pastoral speaker's rusticity, and, in the church eclogues, an echo of the plain-speaking Protestant ploughman tradition. Its effect on readers, then and now, is a sense of language made strange (King 1990) (McCabe 1999).

The woodcuts and the book as object

The 1579 quarto is a carefully designed book, with a woodcut for each month showing the speakers and the zodiac sign, a mix of typefaces separating verse and commentary, and the emblems. Ruth Samson Luborsky showed how the presentation alludes to editions of Virgil and to popular calendars, and argued that the design is part of the work's meaning (Luborsky 1980).

Modern editions that drop the woodcuts or the glosses, like the quote edition here, give a different poem from the one Elizabethan readers held. Recent scholarship treats the Calender as a book in which text, image and commentary interact (McCabe 1999) (Lane 1993).

Pastoral and the poet's vocation

October raises the question of what pastoral is for. Patrick Cullen distinguished in Renaissance pastoral a contrast between 'Arcadian' and 'Mantuanesque' modes, the idyllic and the satirical, and found both in the Calender. Paul Alpers argued that pastoral is a mode that represents the poet's own situation through shepherds' song and their conversations (Cullen 1970) (Alpers 1996).

Annabel Patterson and Robert Lane read the Calender's pastoral as a way of engaging with the institutions of Elizabethan society, while John Bernard saw in Spenser a lifelong pastoralism concerned with the poet's place in the world (Patterson 1987) (Lane 1993) (Bernard 1989).

Key passages

Questions for study

1. Why does the book that introduces a 'new poet' begin with that poet breaking his pipe?

   Compare January and December, and think about who sings Colin's songs in between.

2. How does the calendar structure shape the meaning of the individual eclogues?

   Look at E. K.'s Arguments for February and December, and at the way landscape and season mirror feeling.

3. What does the presentation of the book, with E. K.'s apparatus and the woodcuts, add to the poems? Does it matter who E. K. was?

   Consider how classical texts were printed in the Renaissance, and what changes if Spenser wrote the glosses himself.

4. Is April's lay simply flattery of the Queen?

   Think about the date, the Alençon match, and the fact that the song is sung by Hobbinol, not Colin.

5. How do May, July and September use pastoral to discuss the church? Why use fables and pastoral names?

   Look at Algrind, Roffy, the Fox and the Kid, and the fate of Stubbs and his pamphlet in 1579.

6. What different sources of poetic power are weighed in October, and does the eclogue choose between them?

   Patronage, usefulness, love, wine, heaven: and where Cuddie ends.

7. Why did Spenser use archaic and rustic language, and was Sidney right to object?

   Consider Chaucer, the ploughman tradition and the speakers' social position.

8. How does the November elegy move from grief to consolation?

   Track the changes in the refrain and the change in the images of nature.

9. What role does Hobbinol play in Colin's story?

   Look at January, April, June and December, and at E. K.'s link with Gabriel Harvey.

10. What kind of career does the Calender imagine for its poet?

    Compare Virgil's 'Romish Tityrus' in October with the Epilogue's claim to last 'till the world's dissolution'.

Further reading

• Alpers, Paul. What Is Pastoral? Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
• Bernard, John D. Ceremonies of Innocence: Pastoralism in the Poetry of Edmund Spenser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
• Cheney, Patrick. Spenser's Famous Flight: A Renaissance Idea of a Literary Career. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993.
• Cullen, Patrick. Spenser, Marvell, and Renaissance Pastoral. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
• Hadfield, Andrew. Edmund Spenser: A Life. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
• Hamilton, A. C., gen. ed. The Spenser Encyclopedia. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; London: Routledge, 1990.
• Helgerson, Richard. 'The New Poet Presents Himself: Spenser and the Idea of a Literary Career.' PMLA 93 (1978): 893–911.
• Johnson, Lynn Staley. The Shepheardes Calender: An Introduction. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990.
• Jonson, Ben. Discoveries. Ed. Lorna Hutson. In The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Ben Jonson, gen. eds David Bevington, Martin Butler and Ian Donaldson, vol. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
• King, John N. Spenser's Poetry and the Reformation Tradition. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
• Lane, Robert. Shepheards Devises: Edmund Spenser's Shepheardes Calender and the Institutions of Elizabethan Society. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1993.
• Luborsky, Ruth Samson. 'The Allusive Presentation of The Shepheardes Calender.' Spenser Studies 1 (1980): 29–67.
• McCabe, Richard A., ed. Edmund Spenser: The Shorter Poems. London: Penguin, 1999.
• McCabe, Richard A. Spenser's Monstrous Regiment: Elizabethan Poetry and the Politics of Difference. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
• McLane, Paul E. Spenser's Shepheardes Calender: A Study in Elizabethan Allegory. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1961.
• Montrose, Louis Adrian. ''The perfecte paterne of a Poete': The Poetics of Courtship in The Shepheardes Calender.' Texas Studies in Literature and Language 21 (1979): 34–67.
• Montrose, Louis Adrian. ''Eliza, Queene of shepheardes', and the Pastoral of Power.' English Literary Renaissance 10 (1980): 153–82.
• Montrose, Louis Adrian. ''Of Gentlemen and Shepherds': The Politics of Elizabethan Pastoral Form.' ELH 50 (1983): 415–59.
• Oram, William A., Einar Bjorvand, Ronald Bond, Thomas H. Cain, Alexander Dunlop and Richard Schell, eds. The Yale Edition of the Shorter Poems of Edmund Spenser. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989.
• Patterson, Annabel. Pastoral and Ideology: Virgil to Valéry. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.
• Schleiner, Louise. 'Spenser's "E. K." as Edmund Kent (Kenned / of Kent).' English Literary Renaissance 20 (1990): 374–407.
• Sidney, Philip. An Apology for Poetry (or The Defence of Poesy). Ed. Geoffrey Shepherd, rev. R. W. Maslen. 3rd ed. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.
• Waldman, Louis. 'Spenser's Pseudonym "E. K." and Humanist Self-Naming.' Spenser Studies 9 (1988): 21–31.